一、一般否定与特指否定
英语中根据否定对象和否定范围的不同,可以分为一般否定和特指否定。这两类否定各自的特点是多方面 的。
1.否定范围不同
一般否定是英语中表达否定意义的最常用的方法,通常用否定词not来否定谓语动词,谓语被否定,全句的 意义也就被否定。例如:
It was not (wasn't)so.
Don't talk rot.
特指否定是对谓语以外的成分加以否定,这种否定只涉及到句子的某个成分。否定词not必须放在被否定的 成分面前。例如:
I am ashamed of not knowing it.
Not having heard from him,I wrote again.
在否定句中,否定词的位置不同,被否定的成分也就不同,并且关系到该否定句是特指否定,还是一般否 定。比较下列句子:
We told him not to go.(特指否定)
We didn't tell him to go.(一般否定)
not的位置不同可导致意义的差别。当not用来否定谓语动词时,构成“一般否定”,即否定全句;当not用 来否定后面不定式时,则构成“特指否定”,只起到局部否定的作用。但是,在appear,expect,happen,inten d,plan,seem,tend,want,wish等动词后面跟不定式时,如果要构成否定语句,否定词not既可以置于这些动词之 前,也可以置于后面不定式之前,意义完全相同。例如:
She does not appear to appreciate my explanation.=She appears notto appreciate my explanati on.
They seemed not to notice me.=They did not seem to notice me.
在非正式文体中,not往往置于这类谓语动词之前。
no在句首时,由于否定范围大小不同,也会出现特指否定和一般否定两种情况:
No two persons think alike.(没有两人想法是一样的。)
No news is good news.(没有消息便是好消息。)
第一句中,no的否定范围扩大到全句,整个句子的意思被否定了,应属于一般否定。但第二句中的no,仅 限于否定主语,是特指否定。有时,同是一个句子,孤立地去理解字面意义会产生歧义。例如:
No work will kill him.(什么工作都压不垮他。)
No work will kill him。(不做工作就会把他折磨死。)
第一句用降升调处理,no的否定范围扩大到全句,属一般否定;第二句用升降调处理,no只否定主语,属 特指否定。究竟该取何种意义,则取决于上下文和语调。
2.语法特点不同
在一般否定句中通常不用also,still,already,而必须用(not)yet,neither(或not…either):但在特指 否定句却可以使用。如:
He was still not a brilliant controversialist.
You behave as if you were married to her already.You are not married to her already,……
有时,特指否定句和一般否定句可以相互转换,意义彼此相同,但某些词语必须作相应的改变。比较下列 各组例句,A句是特指否定,B句是一般否定:
A:We saw nothing yesterday.
B:We didn't see anything yesterday.
A:He is no longer our friend.
B:He isn't our friend any longer.
A:I could recite neither this poem nor this story.
B:I couldn't recite either this poem or this story.
3.特指否定与一般否定的某些混合与交替现象
有些句子形式上是特指否定,可是意思上却是一般否定。例如:
Oliver stopped to make no reply.(=Oliver did not stop to make a (any)reply.)
相反,有时形式上虽是一般否定,但意思上却是特指否定。例如:
He did not come to work by bus.(=He came to work not by bus.)
应当说明,这类句子用一般否定是正常的,特指否定常常只有在对照时才使用:
He came to work not by bus,but on foot.
二、完全否定与部分否定
在英语中,根据否定的程度大小,可确定其是完全否定,还是部分否定。
1.完全否定是百分之百地否认一个事物的存在、成立或真实性。表示完全否定的否定词有no,not,nothi ng,nobody,none,nowhere,never,neither,nor,nowise等,例如:
Nothing ever pleases her.
My pen is nowhere to be seen.用not+any/anyone/anybody/anything/anywhere/either 或not+half也 可表示完全否定(=not at all),通常在口语中使用。例如:
I don't like either of the films.
You don't mean half what you are saying.
带否定词缀的词,也可表示完全否定:
Bacteria are invisible to the naked eye.
All the problems remained unsettled.
2.部分否定通常由not+all/both/each/everybody/everything等来表达。例如:
NOt all he said was to the point.
Not everybody can do the same.
但部分否定并不总是用这种方式表达,有时也以一般否定句的形式出现,即把否定主语的not与谓语动词放 在一起。例如:
All is not gold that glisters.
not也可以对某些状语、宾语作部分否定:
The rules don't apply to all cases.
I don't wholly agree with you.
部分否定也可以是对较大数量或较大程度的否定。因此,可以用not+many/much/very much/some来表示部 分否定。例如:
There are not many books on the shelf.
His behaviour does not accord with his principle very much.
此外英语中有一种介于完全否定和部分否定之间的“否定”,即基本否定。所谓基本否定就是在语气上将 否定对象基本上否定,即百分之九十以上否定,肯定部分仅占很小部分。
比较:Nobody believes that.(完全否定)
Hardly anybody believes that.(基本否定)
Not all the people believe that.(部分否定)
基本否定的表达方式主要是用不完全否定词hardly,scarcely,rarely,barely,seldom,few,little等,来表 达否定意义。这些词很接近never,not,no,none等词,不过语气较弱,而且在否定意义上留有余地,不象never ,no等词那样绝对。
三、双重否定与重复否定
在英语否定句中,有时否定不止一次,可能否定两次或两次以上。在这种情况下,必须分清是双重否定, 还是重复否定。因为,这两种否定在语义上有着根本区别,反映出说话人两种不同的语言心理和思维方式。
1.双重否定是指两个否定成分限定同一个词或词素;或是一个否定词否定另一个否定词,取得肯定意义 的表达形式。否定之否定成为肯定,这是合乎逻辑的。表达双重否定的形式有三种。
(1)把否定词not放在带有否定前缀的单词前面:
He was not unable to do the job by himself.
Apparently he was not displeased with my answer.
这类双重否定形式,是一种委婉说法,削弱了句子意义,语气通常比单纯的肯定句弱。
(2)将not和without+名语连用,用not去否定without+名词,一般作状语:
I have brought back your man—not without risk and danger.
He replied,not without hesitation,that he was ready to go.相反,用cannot+行为动词跟without+ 名词或动名词连用,其语气不是减弱而是加强了。否定词也可以是no,never,或用not(not)跟but连用。例如:
We cannot live without air.
I couldn't but laugh when I heard such a story.
(3)用否定词来否定含有否定意义的谓语动词。例如:
They do not deny that their work leaves much to be desired.
We shall not fail to help you when necessary.
not/never/none跟too搭配,也属双重否定,too暗含否定意义。例如:
We cannot work too much for the people.(为人民服务的工作做得越多越好。)
You arrived none too early.(你到得不算太早。)
此外,还可以用否定跟含否定意义的连接词unless,until,but等词连用,构成双重否定;句型too…not t o+动词原形,也可以说是一种双重否定,用来表示强烈的肯定。Jesperson说得好:“语言有它自己的逻辑, 在这里语言逻辑有其可取之处。只要两个否定词指的确实是同一个概念或同一个词(作为特殊否定),结果总 是肯定的。任何语言概不例外。”
2.重复否定是由两个或更多的否定词,接二连三地用在一起而形成的。有时,否定句中本来应该用不定 词,却用了否定词,结果形成了多次否定。重复否定是一种强调否定,不象双重否定那样,以一个否定词,抵 消了另一个否定词的否定意义,使之转化为肯定。所以双重否定的含义是肯定的,而重复否定的意义,无论重 复否定多少次,意义总是否定的。例如:
I won't trouble nobody about nothing no more.
No bread,no butter,no cheese,no nothing.
例句中重复出现的否定词均起强调否定语气的作用,读者不能用双重否定的规则来理解这类句子。这种重 复否定在很多语言中都十分常见,在标准英语中被视为是不合规则的,但英美人常如此使用也就约定俗成了。 这种用法也常出自某些文学家之笔。例如:
I can't do nothing without my staff.—Hardy
You won't lose nothing by it.—Herrick
You ain't never mind to let my things alone no more.—Mansfield
此外,与双重否定和重复否定相似的有多项否定和延续否定。这两种否定必须引起注意,务必跟上述两种 否定区别开来。多项否定是指前面有一项否定,后面接着又有一项或几项否定:
He can't do it,nor can I,nor can you,nor can anybody.
In old China there was hardly any machine—building industry,to say nothing of an aviation i ndustry.
延续否定则是一个否定概念在句中得到多次重复(用相同方式或不同方式)。其目的是为了更明确地表达 否定意思,它既不是双重否定,也不是重复否定。在否定句后加一些具体的内容加以否定,以补充强调前面的 否定。它有三种表达形式:
(1)一个或多个意义相近的否定词,在句中重复出现。
Oh,not now,not now.
None of them is not ready;not one.
(2)在否定句后,延续否定词放在一个状语短语或状语从句前。
He wouldn't come to your house,not even the king himself should ask him to.
I begged him not marry the girl yet……not at least until he had known her for a longer time .
(3)有时延续否定词也放在另一个句子里,用两个否定句来否定同一个对象。
I haven't taken your umbrella;nor have I seen it.
We don't like idling.We never will.
从以上对英语各类否定的对比中,可以看出英语否定意义与表达形式的多样性与复杂性。因此,我们在英 语学习中,对否定语句的理解不能停留在表层结构而望文生义,应该根据英语否定意义及其表达形式的规律, 从深层把握其确切含意。
主要参考书目:
Collins Cobuild.(1990)English Grammar
Harold,E.,Palmer.(1964)A Grammatical Dictionary of English Words
Leech,G.and Startvik,J.(1975)A Communicative Grammar of English
Quirk,R.,Greenbann,S.,Leech G.and Startvik J.(1972)A Grammar of Contemporary English
奥托·叶斯柏 《语法哲学》 (1923)
王逢鑫 《英语意念语法》(1989)
熊建衡,赵织雯 《实用英语交际法》 (1985)
张燮泉 《英语否定若干理论问题的探讨》 (1993)